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The brain in transition
When you consider the creativity
and energy that goes into a lesson plan multiplied by the number of days in a
school year, you have a tremendous commitment by teachers to assure two
functions ensue: alertness and transmittance of content.
Furthermore, there is a
neurological realm with its complex biochemistry transpiring in the heads of
students, the foundation for the assimilation of subject matter. Maintaining a
learning environment given the variance of brain development among the many
members of the class is a challenge. Hats off to the many educators that
successfully nurture understanding and cognitive development to the range of
abilities in their classes.
What is going on in the
skulls of young people? To what degree do neural and developmental factors
enter the equation?
Myelination
Though the human brain
reaches its full size by puberty, it undergoes anatomical changes for several
more years. Using functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Jay Giedd at the National Institutes of Mental
Health, scanned the brains of about one-thousand children ages 3 to 18. The nearly one hundred billion nerve cells
undergo transformations, reaching by age 3, one thousand trillion connections.
Just prior to puberty at around 9 to 10 years of age, the prefrontal cortex undergoes a wave of
reorganization and synaptic growth. Then at age 11, massive pruning of those connections
transpires into early adulthood, consolidating synapses by 40% in the
frontal lobes to derive the adult neurological configuration.1
Another transformation
arises during the teen years: myelination, the coating of the brain's gray matter, analogous to the
insulation around wire, with a fatty sheath, resulting in a
one-hundred-fold amplification of the electrical potential.
Interestingly,
the myelination occurs last in the
prefrontal cortex and finalizes
sometime in the late twenties and early thirties and turns from gray to
white.2 The transformation has profound impact on the attentive
behaviors described in this book with these associated effects:
• Impulse inhibition
• Empathy
• Goal setting
• Initiating appropriate behavior
• Insight
• Modifying behavior to accommodate
situations
• Planning
• Self-control
• Strategizing
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The emotional midbrain completes
myelination before the
prefrontal cortex, which accounts for why children through adolescence often
respond to situations impetuously rather than with reflection.3
While myelination creates a faster electric pulse, the emerging sheathe
inhibits dendritic branching onto the nerve axon body, and thus makes it more
difficult to learn various skills depending on the region of the brain being
myelinated. The prefrontal cortex region is maturing in the above sophisticated
Homo sapiens behaviors, engineered to reach closure up to thirty years of age,
affording flexibility in those qualities.4
For example, if the
amygdala does not get an
"all clear" from the prefrontal cortex, it will assume that an
incoming stimulus may lead to danger, and the brain will go into a survival
mode, and foster the fight or flight reactive mode. A
spider crawling up your arm is an example because there is no deliberation
other than to push the spider away immediately. This is an autonomic response
by the nervous system and the individual
bypasses reflective thinking. To a lesser degree unstimulating lessons curtail
meaningful learning because the amygdala deflects signals
away from the reflective thinking prefrontal cortex, leading to an inattentive
mode.
Positron Emission Topography (PET)
reveals reduced retentive metabolic activity (less glucose and oxygen
consumption) in stressful or boring environments. The amygdala prevails in such
an environment and blockades important cognitive functionality – retention and
critical thinking.5
A relaxed and confident
student responds to classroom stimuli in a meaningful way, processing it in the
memory center, possibly for long term storage. For that reason, activities that
stimulate inquiry and draw on former pleasurable academic success will expedite
assimilation of knowledge.
The
Social Perspective
Validation becomes increasingly
important during the teen years to foster both emotional and academic growth.
Marisa Silveri and Deborah Yurgelun-Todd noted gender
variance during myelination: in boys, the prefrontal cortex maturation is more
strongly tied to self-reporting of behavior, particularly impulse control, whereas in girls that myelination is associated with
perception of the cognitive aspect of controlling incorrect statements.6
Yurgelun-Todd also found that
adolescents experience a preponderance of social anxiety. Consider, for instance, how you would feel if asked to
deliver a speech extemporaneously in front of peers in
English class or note several students giggling when walking past them in the
hallway. Again, it is the fear-sensitive amygdala winning over the not
yet fully matured prefrontal cortex.
They tested sixteen
adolescents viewing fearful
faces in a fMRI. There was heightened amygdalar activity for those that previously
tested high on a social anxiety questionnaire covering items related to peer
rejection, humiliation, performing in public, and separation from loved ones.
Yurgelun-Todd commented that
"A lot of teenage behavior is about
avoiding this anxiety of feeling left out and not being a part of things".6,7
In addition, teens have judgment lapses and mood swings as the endocrine system
responds to brain signals and secretes hormones
that manifest strong feelings, succumbing to urges that result in risky,
thrill-seeking behaviors such as reckless driving, swimming in unsafe areas,
sex, fighting with peers, and suicide attempts. For instance, the production of
testosterone increases ten times in adolescent boys, and estrogen increases
about four-fold in girls resulting in significant anatomical changes along with
behavioral tendencies. The 24-hour hormonal clock changes, too, sustaining
wakefulness late into night, with drowsiness prevailing during morning classes.
Furthermore, the slower
maturation of the brain's (rational) prefrontal cortex in teens relative to the
amygdala's impulsive propensity is tied to peer approval, even if it means
risky behavior with only short-term benefits. Laurence Steinberg, a specialist
on adolescence, and Professor of Psychology at Temple University adds:
Teenagers
are drawn to the immediate rewards of a potential choice and are less attentive
to the possible risks, and are still learning to control their impulses, to
think ahead, and to resist pressure from others. Because adolescents find
socializing so rewarding, we postulate that being with friends primes the
reward system and makes teens pay more attention to the potential pay offs of a
risky decision. (pp. 51-58) 8,9
However, peer pressure
can influence a teen, for example, to perform volunteer work, get good grades,
try out for sports, or follow new artistic interests because their social group
values these activities.
This means that teens
have the potential through choice to shape their own attitudinal brain
development. Therefore, skill-building activities – those physical, learning,
and creative endeavors that teens are encouraged to try – not only provide
stimulating challenges but simultaneously build strong pathways in the brain in
those respective domains.
They
are less hedonistic
Jean Twenge, psychologist at San Diego State University,
has examined teenage trends and found that children across the board (gender,
race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and geographic region) are maturing with
what she terms "slow life strategy" in the 2010s. They are delaying
participation in the work force, driving, drinking alcohol, dating, and having
sex, that is, reluctantly doing what adults regularly do. They are hanging out
with their parents more than in previous decades. Slow life strategy is more
common in families with fewer children, where parenting centers on cultivating
each child's growth and development. Twenge feels, also, that it
is linked to a preoccupation with online activities, which increased markedly
in the recent decade. They are more supervised, less likely to walk home from
school, for instance, and take longer to get married and have children. In
America, the average parent spent eighty-eight minutes a day primarily looking
after children in 2012 – up from forty-one minutes in 1965. Twenge acknowledges
that it is good but notes that these same well-nurtured teens find themselves
in a different environment in college without adult supervision and are
suddenly exposed to sex and alcohol. She adds:
The
developmental trajectory of adolescence has slowed, with teens growing up more
slowly than they used to. In terms of adult activities, 18-year-olds now look
like 15-year-olds once did.10
Boys
In Raising Cain, co-authors Michael Thompson and Dan Kindlon present the
following validating strategies, designed to help parents and teachers to
respect their interests and needs, and help them grow up to be caring,
intelligent, successful men.11
• Recognize
and accept the high activity level of boys and give them safe "boy"
places to express their energy. "Boys need to learn how to manage their
physicality to do no harm, but they need not be shamed for exuberance."
• Talk
to boys in a way that respects their pride and masculinity.
• Teach
boys that emotional courage is courage, and that courage and empathy are the
sources of real strength in life. In life and art, we need to provide boys
models of male heroism that go beyond the muscular, the self-absorbed, and the
simplistically heroic.
• Use
discipline to build character and conscience, not enemies. "If they are
unduly shamed, harshly punished, or encounter excessive adult anger, they will
soon react to authority with resistance rather than with a desire to do
better."
Girls
The transformations in
the brain coupled with the hormonal onslaught affects girls as they enter the
adolescent years. According to Anita Gurian of the New York
University Child Study Center, just before junior high school, girls'
self-esteem can plummet. Why? "Starting in the pre-teen years, there is a
shift in focus; the body becomes an all-consuming passion and barometer of
worth."12
The YWCA reported that the
"Young women of this generation have learned from a very young age that
the power of their gender was tied to what they looked like – and how 'sexy'
they were – than to character or achievement."13
One of the main issues
in the United States and Western culture has been the increase in
sexualization. The American Psychological Association (APA) Task Force on the
Sexualization of Girls issued a report in 2007. They state that
sexualization occurs when
…a
person's value comes only from his or her sexual appeal or behavior, to the
exclusion of other characteristics and a person is held to a standard that
equates physical attractiveness (narrowly defined) with being sexy.14
Compounding the problem
is the striving for validation, and that often comes from female peers that
police one another in the areas of body image and sexuality.12
Dr. Leonard Sax, noted psychiatrist has written extensively on gender
matters (Why Gender Matters, Boys Adrift, and Girls on the Edge) citing research as well as anecdotes from his
practice.15
He maintains that the
cyberbubble (social networking and electronic communication) lessens
conversation skills because texting has replaced talking. Girls do not develop
a true sense of self because they are connected to peers all the time through
messaging using the vast number of online avenues. They take on identities such
as ''thin girl'' or ''athletic girl'' or "straight A girl". These
obsessions can appear in the form of eating disorders, cutting, drug and alcohol
abuse, or even in seemingly healthy activities like sports and school. The girl feels that
there is no room for failure in her quest, and Sax noted that she experiences a
devastating blow when the obsession no longer serves a valid identity in her
life becoming lost in the void she created.
He encourages parents
to:
• have
a significant voice in what their daughters wear;
• help
them find a sense of spirituality through prayer or mindfulness;
• have
daughters rub shoulders with the adult role-modeling females in the community;
• purchase
food and beverage products packaged without phthalate, an estrogenic endocrine
disruptor.15
Anxiety on the rise
As discussed in the
Introduction, anxiety has become a
national epidemic affecting a third of the American population. Teens are
checking on their peers, getting their self-worth judged by Web social apps, if
they are invited to a party, or how many likes/dislikes they get after
submitting a comment or picture on social media.
Online bullying is
commonplace and leads to absenteeism to avoid embarrassment and ridicule in
school. The attacks are occurring in their homes, on those phones, even while
sitting next to their parents, transfixed to the online world.
The addiction to those
devices draws a fuzzy line between the real and online world, limiting the
ability to develop a healthy self-concept that occurs in face to face
encounters and other social venues. As the anxiety builds, children are piercing
themselves at an increasing rate through self-harm, a technique that sets off
the endogenous opioid system in response to the depressed feeling. Cutting has
become the private, habitual outgrowth of the unhappy teen in this generation.
Secure Base Priming to the rescue
Positive
interdependence provides a continual affirmation of a person's value in a peer
setting, lessening an individual's impulsive and body-centered perception of
the world. Young men are inundated with violent and misogynist images from the
media and need to understand that they do not have to exude a macho persona to
gain favorable attention from peers. Young women are strongly influenced by
ever pervasive messages that place extreme value on body image and end up being
consumed by these thoughts. The secure base priming that is associated with
positive interdependence enhances the prefrontal cortex's attention to rational
thought and quell the fear-triggered amygdala. Consider how students working in
teams using the teacher devised- or student-created scripts over the course of
a school year will affect that neurological transformation!
Building a strong
collaborative setting in your classroom can be a powerful deterrent to
impulsiveness, hate, and ego-centrism. Positive interdependence allows
individuals to hear comments from peers (face-to-face) that they are valued
members of a group, striving toward a goal, and appreciated for contributions.
Overcoming the genetic influence to be
impulsively aggressive
There is evidence that
a validating environment curbs impulsivity and anger. Avshalom Caspi, Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at Duke
University, studied a behavior-related gene that predisposes thirty-four
percent of study subjects toward conduct disorder, violent disposition, and
incidences of antisocial personality disorder. To show that behavior is not
rigidly determined by heredity, his team noted that these behaviors appeared
only among young men who had been maltreated as children, but were productive,
non-aggressive citizens when brought up in a validating and loving environment.16
In attempts to be
relevant amongst peers, teens may experience rejection in the early realm. Many
of them, however, are affirmed as compatible people as they progress through
their teen years, and nurture friendships and the capacity to socialize. Some do
not advance in this regard, leading to frustration because the void of
interpersonal connections leads to isolation and potentially antisocial
behavior.
Yurgelun-Todd claims
that myelination results in the
cognitive capacity that bolsters abstract thinking in teens, contributing to the
perception that they are being judged and with it, an urge to get validated as relevant,
attractive, and intelligent beings. Her
graduate student, Isabelle Rosso, adds:
If
we can identify high-risk kids early or before the onset of illness, we could
become more of a preventative field, which could lead to changes in treatment
strategies, an improvement in people's quality of life, and, ultimately,
reduced cost of psychiatric illness for society.17
An
eight-year study conducted by June Tangney and Ronda Dearing, at George Mason University, of almost four-hundred fifth
graders, showed that susceptibility to shame correlated with higher rates of
school suspensions, drug, use, and attempted suicide. Those that were
guilt-prone on the other hand had a more profound sense of right versus wrong,
were more likely to enter college, be involved in community service, and were
less promiscuous.18 Hall and Cook noted, too,
in their counseling practice that a parenting style that includes validation helps children
develop a moral compass as they experience guilt for misdeeds as they reckon
with the mistake-prone tendency in humans.(p.48)19
The
Validating Classroom
The
Silveri and Yurgelun-Todd myelination research coupled with Hall and Cook's
validation counseling are relevant in the classroom domain. In review:
1. Brain maturation is an ongoing process,
and children through the teen years are experiencing enormous dendritic
sprouting that dramatically affects cognitive functionality, decision making,
and behavioral management.
2. The Student Engagement Project surveyed
42,000 students covering over one hundred high schools revealed that two-thirds
are bored during school hours.20
3. The neurological and emotional
development of a child includes striving for relevance amongst peers and the
drive is particularly acute during the teen years.
As
mentioned previously:
Students
must be affirmed that they are safe and that the philosophical statement of the
district holds sacred and protects human qualities: gender, physical stature,
mannerisms, racial heritage, and religious affiliation. Schools must validate
the diverse intellectual skill set among students and provide opportunities for
expression in classrooms without unwarranted criticism by classmates and
adults.
In
addition, validation is maximized when teacher comments directed collectively
or to individuals affirm that they are valued as capable thinkers and, when
needed, given corrective feedback that leads to a better understanding of the
subject. Furthermore, the instructor should find ways to empower students as
facilitators of content as class leaders or in team-based scenarios because
these promote the biologically inherent human social need Steinberg mentioned
above, that includes abundant validation of competency and friendship.
This book
details how classroom settings can be organized and calls attention to positive
interdependence, a scripted formula that primes students with validating
statements and corrective measures. Team-based exercises have been shown to
maximize assimilation of content and significantly improve camaraderie and tolerance.
Validation through extracurricular participation
How
important is extracurricular participation in the life of an adolescent? That has been studied by
several scientists and the results are positive. Margo Gardner, researcher at the National Center for Children
and Families at Columbia University, examined eleven thousand American
teenagers until they were twenty-six years old. Her data revealed that those
that participated in two years of
extracurricular activities in high school were potently validated and
significantly more likely to earn a college degree as well as participate in
volunteer work in their communities.21 (pp.814-830)
Realizing
that standardized test scores and report card grades were not very reliable in
predicting success in life, Warren Willingham, scientist at the
Educational Testing Service, expanded the criteria to determine the one that
correlated with success after high school. In fact, he developed a list of more
than one-hundred items from a student's profile including parent vocation,
socioeconomic status, career interests, and motivation to get admitted to
college. He drew from a pool of 25,000 applicants to nine colleges and
subsequently targeted 4,814 that enrolled. In the second phase Willingham
examined these individuals five years later, focusing on three categories:
academic distinctions, leadership avenues, and accomplishments in science and
technology, the arts, sports, writing and speaking, entrepreneurism, or community
service.
Which
criteria was most validating among the one-hundred examined? His team found
that follow-through was the best indicator
of success in young adults: "The follow-through
rating involved evidence of purposeful, continuous commitment to certain types
of activities in high school versus sporadic efforts in diverse areas."
Like Margo Gardner, Willingham also noted that the top follow-through rated
individuals almost always participated in two
different high school extra-curricular activities for multiple years. He cites,
for example, the student that was on the school newspaper staff, track team for
three years and won his event at a regional meet. The lowest scoring individuals
on the follow-through scale not surprisingly did not participate in even one
extra-curricular in high school or dabbled in a few along the way without a
year to year commitment.
In
addition, Willingham found that the individuals with the highest follow-through
scores were likely to achieve honors when graduating from a university. These
people were often involved in appointed or elected leadership positions and
made notable accomplishments as young adults in the arts, sports, writing,
entrepreneurism, and community service. The key is that the commitments in high
school covered any extra-curricular such as baseball, student government,
forensics, yearbook, and sustained for more than one year.22
Alcohol affects the memory
center, the hippocampus, reducing its growth potential, particularly abusive
drinking. The hippocampus communicates with the prefrontal cortex to promote the
transfer of memory to that region for permanent storage, help people
distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar circumstances, and regulate
behavior inhibitions. One study that surveyed 15 and 16-year-olds, a time of
proliferating myelination, found that they scored lower on verbal and non-verbal
memory if they had one-hundred or more alcohol episodes in their
lifetime.23,24
Sleep
A study at Brown
University's Bradley Hospital found that teenagers are not getting enough sleep, affecting their circadian rhythm, that is, the timing of
periods of sleepiness and wakefulness throughout the day. The circadian rhythm
dips and rises at various times, so an adult's strongest sleep drive generally
occurs between 2:00-4:00 a.m. and in the afternoon between 1:00-3:00 pm. While
children need about ten hours per evening, teens need nine, and adults about
eight. Coordinator of the study Mary Carskadon examined three-thousand teenagers and
found in her survey that most were getting seven hours of sleep and a quarter
of them six hours or less. That is sleep
deprivation in her judgment and
the consequence is that brain cells do not get replenished, minimizing
dendritic sprouting for the learning
accrued during the day. Furthermore, teens are not as tired in the evening and
go to bed later, getting up an hour or so before their rhythm has fully
manifested, preventing them from experiencing one or more of the deep sleep REM
(reticular eye movement) sessions in that rhythm. They essentially are in
school during their first two classes when that REM should commence.25
Conclusion
As the prefrontal
cortex undergoes
myelination, we as educators and parents must recognize the impulsive
and emotion-driven behaviors of adolescents, seeking validation and opportunities to
assert themselves in the presence of peers. Listening to teachers for the
balance of a day is not their favorite activity given the reduced novelty compared to iPhones and other devices
that sustain concentration and provide the peer validation they so desperately
seek. Therefore, it is important that adolescents receive
guidance from parents and teachers during that period to provide a reflective
thinking role model, reinforcing
the rationale for attending school, the relevance of literacy development
through content areas, and help them become
motivated learners.
Furthermore, the
dramatic brain development during the adolescent years (when they are
inherently eager to learn) must be matched by instructional methods to maximize
assimilation and skill development. Knowledge facilitation and neuroplasticity associated with
interactive lessons increase dendritic sprouting to foster deeper
understanding and retention.
Yurgelun-Todd asserts that "A
lot of teenage behavior is about avoiding this anxiety of feeling left out
and not being a part of things".6 In this context collaborative work and group
projects have been shown to significantly improve motivation and attentiveness, and the inclusion of
positive interdependence and secure base
priming discussed earlier
are practices that minimize social isolation and improve respect for subject
area literacy. In this regard,
A central theme of this book is the
importance of validation to enhance student attentiveness. They need to
be empowered as agents of thought and creativity, make choices, including
talking amongst peers to share their mastery of subject, and express beliefs,
fears, and aspirations. They must feel, too, that the community, particularly
the faculty, is friendly and advocates for children. In addition, literacy
growth in all subject areas must be prefaced to show relevance in their lives,
touching base with existing patterns in the brain to hasten the learning process.
To provide a successful
educational environment for children, we must consider the profound cultural
and biochemical influences on boys and girls. They are dealing with transitions
in their brain coupled with the pressure to feel significant in their peer
community and need to know that they are vital players in the manipulation of
subject material. Many students do not prosper academically because they do not
feel validated as bona fide
intelligent beings at school. They tend to mask their feelings and miss out on
opportunities to bond with others. In an affirming environment they develop
emotional control and a sense of identity.19
Unless we as educators
understand the power of validation, it is unlikely that we will be effective
when communicating to the broad range of aptitudes that come into our
classrooms. In my opinion, the emphasis on sexualization, role-modeling by the entertainment industry, and online
messaging is where teenagers are getting much of their validation, capturing their attention, challenging our effectiveness
as content area facilitators. Positive interdependence and secure base priming are powerful tools
that counteract the media negativity and perpetuate quality socialization and
appreciation of course work.
References
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