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The
exercises below are samples of cooperative efforts that emphasize positive
interdependence. The roles (Leader, Desks/Folders,
Recorder, Summarizer/Clarifier, Checker, Wildcard, and Reader) have a purpose in each of the lesson types. This is a
short list of many possibilities that educators have developed.
If you
have done little or no collaborative learning, start with simple
tasks 1 through 5. These ten to thirty-minute scenarios will familiarize your
students with furniture movement and positive interdependence scripts, collaborative
events that can effectively introduce knowledge or reinforce what was
previously learned. In addition, they will allow you to implement evaluation
forms to develop behavioral standards applicable for subsequent group tasks.
The
interactive element is maximized
when students do full-scale projects (see #9), an educational process that
augments executive functions: working memory, prioritizing, and problem-solving, and
has lifelong value in the academic realm.
Scrutinize for turn-taking since that is what Pentland found to be an
effective means to generate productivity and creativity. Also, be sure the desk layout is symmetrical, in an orientation
that maximizes face-to-face proximity, with the
clusters far apart for maximum autonomy and safe navigation. In time,
flexibility with student mobility during tasks can be employed.
How much collaboration?
This is a
decision you make based on the leadership and personalities of a class. As
indicated previously, switching to a cooperative learning-only format would be an overkill but balancing group tasks
with teacher-directed presentations can be expedited. The combination of all
the pedagogical devices is hierarchical, with the basic level activities
(lectures, videos, and
individual work) progressing to more assertive activities that are
student-led and team-based. Student leaders facilitating a discussion or solving a problem
was common in my classes. Grade level meetings should ascertain the extent
short and long-term inclusion of cooperative learning is used among the
staff. The science teacher may be using
it for quizzes, the math teacher may be doing a test review, but the history
instructor may have a week-long project next month. I recommend that any one of
the easy exercises (1 through 5) be done at least once a week. Exercises 6
through 11 are more advanced but promote the powerful dopaminergic response
discussed throughout. This book is written to inspire teachers to raise
cognition by having students
lead class discussions or participate in close-order face-to-face settings, and
cross-curricular communication increases its effectiveness throughout the grade
level.
How many in a group?
For short,
uncomplicated tasks, groups of two should suffice particularly in the
laboratory. In my implementation, three was ideal for quizzes and four or five
for longer assignments. I developed the teams from my spreadsheet rosters often
with knowledge of their sociability and achievement levels and posted them in
front of the room. I had different rosters for quiz groups compared to long
duration teams, sticking with those two groupings throughout the year, but
modifying based on absences or other reasons.
The
Group Lesson Formats
1
|
Answer objective questions
|
This might be the
easiest collaborative lesson to perform.
Multiple choice, true/false, and fill in the blank questions require scrutiny
but only circles or one-word answers are documented. Discussing a topic to
derive a list is another process.
2
|
Quiz with objective questions
|
Very much like the
previous assignment but submitted for grading. Students work more diligently on
quizzes compared to worksheets, especially if there is a time limit. This is primarily
done to reinforce what was covered in the preview night's homework and is particularly
effective in raising achievement levels if implemented one or two times per
week.
3
|
Reviewing last night's homework
|
This entails discussion
as individuals read and defend their answers. It might be a math assignment
where students go through the step-by-step procedure. The group may decide to
skip easy questions. Another possibility is a worksheet that closely mirrors
or replicates the homework. A very effective method I used was having a group, or one
member of the class, lead a discussion of the homework at the board with each
member answering a different question.
4
|
Introduction of a topic
|
Like the research
report except that the lesson is designed to introduce a new chapter. A
textbook or handout provides the knowledge base or steps needed to master the
subject, and the team grapples with a cluster of questions to develop
proficiency ranging from one idea to a complement of topics. Specify that sentences,
or in math procedures individual steps, be recorded by every member. This data
gathering is a wonderful way to introduce a host of new ideas and vocabulary at
the start of a unit.
5
|
Discussion or reading
|
They simply gather to
discuss a topic with or without note-taking. The eye contact and sharing of ideas
is the priority and a follow up presentation to the class enhances the process.
Implement the roles.
6
|
Worksheet completion using sentences and paragraphs –
Short responses
|
This is a more
extensive data gathering process. The end product should be replicated on each
sheet. Again, the resource is a handout or their textbook. The members now have
an organized concept guide for a homework assignment or test
review.
7
|
Essays
|
Based on a prompt,
students compile an essay that not only incorporates data gathering but records
ideas into a logical sequence to address the prompt, whether taking a position
or explaining a process. Multiple paragraphs will necessitate that one
individual derive the written copy (the recorder). Having individuals copy
every sentence may not be the most expeditious way to do this task but using a
note-taker (handwritten or word processor) will allow for the accumulated
product to be added to a server or emailed to all parties. If the notes are
duplicated in some form or emailed to a server, the compilation of sentences
can be revised. It might be advantageous when preparing such a long document to
have each member write a paragraph or two after an outline has been established
followed by creation of topic sentences or main ideas. If the assignment
requires a considerable amount of time, break it down into two or more
classroom intervals, divided into multiple chunks over a span of days to
perform other lesson objectives. Compiling the essay will necessitate scrutiny
by each member, a valuable process because it is novel and allows the leader to delegate responsibilities and full-scale
participation to derive acceptable wording to all parties. The instructor may
want to collect (or receive an emailed version) at designated times for
editing.
8
|
Review for a test
|
I found that having a
compilation of objective and essays questions readies students very effectively
if performed in a collaborative mode. Coupled with a
teacher-led discussion and student modeling at the board can prepare students
quite well. I would use this format over a two-day period for tests and an
entire month in preparation for an Advanced Placement Exam.
9
|
Research reports
|
This is an
entirely different type of collaborative exercise as members
follow guidelines to assemble a large report. It is also referred to as a group
project. Decide whether your class can handle either a short or extensive
project since it will likely
necessitate movement to other parts of the room to use computers to gather
information (unless they have their own devices). If computers are not in your
classroom, students must go to the school's technology center. Many classrooms
are outfitted with laptops but student personal devices, with guidelines, might
be useful given the capacity to rapidly secure information for any project.
You trust that students know
where to go and how to get the information as needed for their group. The
administration and staff must be
aware of your students maneuvering around the school. Concerns for printing
must be hashed out too. If you do this over an extended interval such as a
week, check on their progress by visiting each module from time to time, or
have periods where each group gives a summary to the whole class. You can vary
the amount of time per period devoted to this project to carry out other lesson
objectives.
The
team relies on members carrying out designated tasks including at home.
Allowing the group to have mobility around the room and building complex,
collect information, and follow instructions for a considerable amount of time
is a vital element in building trust and respect for academic work. Moreover, it is
an educational process that empowers the students to set an agenda, maximizing
development of executive functions: working memory, prioritizing, and
problem-solving. It has lifelong value in the academic realm.
Additional
ways to conduct the project:
1.
The
leader assigns tasks as homework and convenes the
next day.
2.
The
report can be in the form of a paper, PowerPoint presentation, skit,
video production, or poster. Presenting to the whole class validates the project especially if time
is apportioned for questions. I found that having students and colleagues from
other classes in the audience adds to the seriousness of the project.
Consider
striving for full scale collaborative research projects because they
encompass so many elements discussed in this book. Simpler collaborative tasks build
confidence. Furthermore, full scale projects foster improvements in judgment,
planning, cooperation, and independence. It is important that your directives
for the final product are explicit.
10
|
Individual
|
The same as the
collaborative research report (#9)
except that it is done individually.
11
|
Jigsaw
|
This method divides a
subject area. Each member has a specific section that they study as homework (or during class)
and then teaches their designated section to the other members.
An
adaptation of the jigsaw approach would be to have each group study one aspect
of a larger unit.
a) Teams
then pair up to teach the other group what they learned. The process is
continued until the entire class has had exposure to the range of topics. This
was discussed in earlier (see BOX 8.1) and was associated with both
productivity and creativity when Pentland and his team used
the sociometer to evaluate group
network intelligence in various settings.
or
b) Each
team makes a presentation to the whole class.
Conclusion
Situations
that allow students to facilitate content in group settings can be an effective
means to master subjects, optimize student engagement, and promote a joyful
environment. The range of possibilities extend from simple worksheets to complex projects
that use resources in other parts of the room or the building, with students
delegating responsibilities. In all cases, students are working relatively
independent of the teacher, in some instances setting their own agenda to
achieve goals established by the teacher or their team. It is a way to
incorporate positive interdependence where members of the
group "encourage and facilitate each other's efforts to reach the groups'
goals."1, 2, 3 It has been my experience (and that of other
educators) that collaborative work is fun and combined with teacher
presentations heightens the interest level of a course.
BUILDING A
SUCCESSFUL SCHOOL YEAR
THE INAUGURAL WEEK
BACK
Let us
take advantage of the research and useful information presented so far by
making the first week the building block for the entire school year. Here is a
basic outline of how one can begin a school year that nurtures attentiveness and collaboration.
Your main responsibility is to establish an environment
that is engaged, role-modeling
leadership, superior content area facilitation, and student advocacy. Upon receiving
a group of students for the first time I use the inaugural week (or longer) to
make presentations and do individual assignments. They are in designated,
well-spaced rows, acknowledging that I am the educational leader, in control of the
environment, emphasizing learning my content area as the priority.
Compliance is important, and I deal with discipline issues in a firm, calm
manner. It is a quiet, teacher-directed, knowledge-facilitating atmosphere.
There is little or no collaborative work as I become familiar with the
students' work habits and attentiveness. They recognize me as an enthusiastic endorser of my
course as I deliver well-crafted lectures and worksheets. Having a student come to the board to solve a problem or
lead a discussion is incorporated as well. Students are undergoing a culture
shock as they adapt to the institution's climate after a lengthy vacation,
building levels of trust and respect for
their teachers, and gradually given latitude in space and time management
during the school year.
Explain cooperative learning. At this juncture, I start the cooperative learning
experience, a highly-structured approach that builds from the auspicious and
focused first week. I want to have success in this arena and articulate this
introduction very carefully. The discipline established the first week carries
over to the collaborative mode.
However,
if the objectives are not clearly enunciated, the students will misunderstand
your intention, ascertain it as a break in the action, a diminishment of the
attention they were accustomed with you being in the front of the room
controlling their behavior and dispensing content. They might see it as an
opportunity to socialize and consider the assimilation of material secondary.
The students in the collaborative mode are in an orientation significantly
different from the teacher-centered mode. They look for cues when teachers let
their guard down and trying a different pedagogy without a well enunciated rationale can
backfire.
-To
facilitate the material of this lesson, you will be doing an assignment in
groups. It is called cooperative learning and is used
successfully in many schools.
-You
are to cooperate to determine the best answer for each question.
-Talking
is good. Everyone's opinion matters and there should be an equal amount of
participation. If there is a disagreement, clearly and tactfully state your
point of view. Come to a consensus that everyone can live with. Nobody is to
get angry or impatient. Each member of the group is important. Along with your
writing, face each other, and have eye contact along the way. Ask
the teacher to intervene if the problem cannot be resolved.
-Everyone
should have the same answer in the spaces provided but document your
perspective in the margin if it differs from the group.
-You
are all in this together and your team is to be successful in two principle
areas: as (a) communicators and (b) assimilators of information.
Create teams. Before class, divide the roster into teams of
three or four. (I do this during the summer from the classes posted on our
school's server.) Having one strong student in each group is advisable.
However, look at your roster and decide what combinations will be most
functional.
Have a desk arrangement strategy. Chart the positions
of the furniture so that each group is oriented face-to-face and in close-order,
with heads three to four feet apart. The students need to know where to move
their desks or tables. It will be a little disorganized the first time.
The initial cooperative learning event should be short (ten to fifteen minutes).
Furthermore, keep the directions simple and explicit on the handout or whatever
means you communicate. What should you devise? Use any of your worksheet handouts because the
prompts and directions were explicit for the individual student and will work
similarly for a team. An essay might be too demanding for a group at this point
but data gathering from a handout or text might be on par for this first dose.
Solving math problems, multiple choice or fill in the blank, or a discussion
about themes from a novel are apropos. Make it of sufficient length because
some groups will finish quickly.
Simply observe. The formal assessment sheets (student and
teacher) might be a bit cumbersome for this initial experience. By watching and
listening you will gather a lot of information about your assignment, its
difficulty level (perhaps too easy), and the functionality of your students in
this novel situation. It is okay that they see you (from a distance) looking at
the class. Observe eye contact, the degree of sharing, the tone of voice, or any
engagement elements that are relevant to a proper cooperative learning scenario. It is not
necessary that there be talking because individuals may be able to complete
questions on their own – but having members in close proximity will allow for
confirmation and help. Look for the leaders because that will prove useful in delegating
roles the next time. Jot notes. Step in if necessary to correct obvious abuses
such a bad language or touching but otherwise remain a distance away from the
modules.
Collect the sheets or
have the students put them in their individual folders (that stay in the room
for your perusal).
Have students put the
desks in their former position.
Allocate enough time to
discuss (i) how the event transpired and (ii) the conclusions derived from the assignment. It is not necessary
that every group complete the assignment this time. This discussion should
solicit student comments, but also your assessment of how they did
based on earlier statements related to the rationale and expectations
associated with cooperative learning. Your comments are critical because students must have
feedback on both the positive and negative behaviors in
this team environment. It is likely that you found some students docile, some
out-spoken, some unkind, and you need to address these behaviors in a calm but
firm manner to nurture the atmosphere you desire for future work in team
settings.
Plan a
subsequent cooperative learning event and designate
roles. It could be the next day but have the assessment sheets ready to go,
both the instructor and student forms. (You could delay this process if the
observational aspect is all you desire.) It, too, can be a short, simple
assignment but will foster a higher expectation level. Briefly discuss the
rules of engagement preceding the event including the observation comments you
made after the first encounter.
Pass out the student
assessment sheets after they
complete the assignment but use your teacher assessment sheet to check off
listed behaviors as they are working. For the most part, allow the students to
work autonomously but walk through the room occasionally to offer feedback and encouragement
making corrections on their papers if that deems appropriate.
Distribute
the student assessment sheets to make
evaluations of personal and group conduct and productivity. Again, leave enough
time at the end to do the assessment and have the
assignment sheet and assessment placed in their folders. If you are concerned
about confidentiality, have students fold their assessments and collect them
individually. It would be appropriate to discuss their collaborative mode
behavior.
Decide which of the above fit into your comfort
zone and balance teacher-directed intervals with cooperative tasks. If simple
collaborative tasks are working for you, continue in that venue, perhaps
changing the design of the assignments. The more sophisticated, long duration
cooperative learning tasks (#6-11) are
unique in their scope and expectation and require careful planning and
assessment. I found them applicable for project work but used the
method for major test review such as final exams or advanced placement,
sometimes as long as a month, breaking them up from time to time with brief
talks. I developed very graphic and lucid PowerPoint presentations that were
helpful when delivering my content area but observed how student collaborative tasks were
particularly effective to reinforce ideas and draw them into an evaluative
mode. Students were more relaxed, recorded more information, and asked many
questions, though both worked well in tandem. As needed, use your teacher
evaluation form to note behaviors and continue to maintain a presence by
meeting with each group to discuss your observations, calling attention to
positives as well as ways they can improve. That is critical because the
students must get feedback and reflect on how
they can become more productive as a team. Research
has shown that feedback results in higher achievement, motivation, and positive attitudes toward the curriculum, the
teacher, along with a quest to learn more of the subject.4 At a certain point, the
evaluation can be expedited occasionally because the students are autonomous
and functional in this arena.
Must the students remain in their symmetrical
clusters to have the most productive collaborative effort? For the most part,
yes to maximize the brain-based benefits of eye contact and distributive
sharing and leadership. However, a looser
interpretation of collaborative work permits any
distribution of bodies that maintains the enthusiasm and spirit of
collaboration and task completion. I had classes that earned the trust and I empowered them to coordinate
cooperatives that worked best for them whether huddled near a board, hunched
over a desk, or individual work with collaboration at another location upon the
leader's signal. Sometimes
they came over to me to have a critique of their summaries. Later in my career
the dual lab partners in chemistry or physics evolved to a cross room feedback mode from other
teams on methodology and conclusions.
One of the most inspiring cases occur when a
student or a group leads the class in a homework or test review at
the board. Without my intervention, they facilitate an intense discussion of
the most important questions and encourage everyone to partake either by
soliciting answers or questions. In several instances, my students inaugurated
the class with me as an observer of helper, or allocated intervals to make
introductions and explain ideas and processes – a dramatic departure from the
autocratic period early in my career.
In conclusion, mixing and matching
instructional methods will raise the attention level of your class. Here are
some familiar samples of collaborative or individual
methods that are used in classrooms:
The interjection of well-structured group
efforts intensifies the learning process because it takes advantage of the
neurological benefits of socialization, inclusiveness, and results in trust and camaraderie between parties. The
trust evolves to appreciation: for the teacher, for peers, and for the course.
*******
References
1. Johnson, R.,
Johnson, D., Holubec, E., (1998). Cooperation
in the Classroom. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. pp. 4, 7–8.
2. Choi, J.,
Johnson, D., Johnson, R., (2001). Relationships Among Cooperative Learning
Experiences, Social Interdependence, Children’s Aggression, Victimization, and
Prosocial Behaviors. Journal of Applied
Social Psychology 41 (4): 976–1003.
3. Johnson, R.,
Johnson, D., (2009). An Educational Psychology Success Story: Social
Interdependence Theory and Cooperative Learning., Educational Researcher 38 (5): 366–367.
4. Archer-Kath, J.,
Johnson, D., Johnson, R., (1994). Individual versus Group Feedback in
Cooperative Groups, The Journal of Social
Psychology, Volume 134, Issue 5.
